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Intro
Jean-Jacques Rousseau begins his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality with a letter to the Republic of Geneva, praising its governance, social structure, and harmony between equality and order. He celebrates Geneva as a model republic, where citizens take personal responsibility and share a strong collective identity rooted in mutual respect rather than attachment to territory. Rousseau envisions an ideal government as a democracy where the sovereign’s interests align with the people’s. He warns against systems of unchecked power, emphasizing that laws should reflect the collective will and be preserved to ensure stability.
Rousseau critiques unstable governments and extols republics with a long history of freedom, arguing that liberty requires gradual adaptation. He advocates for a state that avoids conquest, maintains self-defense, and upholds its laws to safeguard liberty. Citizens, he believes, should determine governance collectively while delegating administration to magistrates, ensuring accountability and preventing corruption. Rousseau praises Geneva’s industrious citizens, virtuous laws, and alignment of clergy and civic values, urging the republic to maintain its unity and vigilance.
In the treatise’s preface, Rousseau distinguishes natural inequality (inequality based on physical differences), from moral or political inequality (inequality created by societal structures). He rejects the justification of inequality by natural differences, arguing that society’s hierarchies and privileges are artificial constructs. He critiques previous philosophers for projecting societal values onto the state of nature, asserting that inequality stems from historical developments rather than any inherent law.
Rousseau’s exploration begins with a hypothetical natural state, stripping humanity of tools, language, and social structures. In this state, primitive humans lived in harmony with nature, guided by instinct and self-preservation. They satisfied basic needs with minimal effort, relying on nature’s abundance. Early humans were physically resilient, enduring hardships and defending themselves without weapons or shelter. Rousseau argues that civilized life diminishes both physical and mental strength by replacing natural necessities with artificial conveniences.
Contrary to Thomas Hobbes’s view of humanity as aggressive in its natural state, Rousseau describes primitive humans as cautious and adaptable. They learned to measure their strength against predators, maintaining a balance where humans were rarely preyed upon. Natural ailments like sickness were rare, as simpler lifestyles spared humans from many diseases. Rousseau highlights pity as a central virtue in the natural state, an instinct that fosters compassion and tempers self-interest. In contrast, civilized humans, shaped by reason and self-interest, often suppress their natural compassion.
In the second part of the discourse, Rousseau identifies the establishment of private property as the foundation of inequality and the root of human suffering. He imagines the first claim to land as a pivotal moment, lamenting that humanity failed to reject this act. Property introduced competition, conflict, and exploitation, as individuals sought to secure possessions and assert dominance. Rousseau argues that property emerged gradually as humans innovated to meet environmental challenges, from developing tools to creating agriculture and metallurgy. These advancements enabled surplus production and specialization but also intensified inequality.
The rise of property institutionalized competition and created social hierarchies, leading to the formation of governments. Rousseau critiques political society as a system designed by the wealthy to protect their advantages under the guise of equality and justice. Leaders, initially chosen to maintain order, consolidated power and exploited their subjects, transforming governance into despotism.
