The Prince: Chapter 7 Summary & Analysis

Machiavelli turns to a discussion of princes who gain their position through fortune. Unlike those who come to power by prowess, new princes who come to power by fortune "do so with little exertion" but can maintain their status only with considerable effort. Machiavelli cautions his audience that those who gain power by fortune "rely on the goodwill and fortune" of others, which makes their position vulnerable and unstable. New princes who come to power by fortune can only succeed if they possess "such prowess that overnight they can learn how to preserve what fortune has suddenly tossed into their laps." Like other princes, they must lay strong foundations for their rule.

Machiavelli introduces the examples of two contemporary rulers, one who came to power by prowess and the other by fortune. Francesco Sforza used his prowess to rise from a private citizen to the duke of Milan. He won his status with great effort but held it with "little exertion." On the other hand, Cesare Borgia gained his position easily through "the good fortune of his father," Pope Alexander VI, but lost his state when that fortune "disappeared." Machiavelli praises Borgia for the "strong foundations" that he established after gaining his state through fortune. However, Machiavelli recognizes the "inordinate malice of fortune" that eventually destroyed Borgia's gains, although he argues that Borgia was not to blame for this loss.

Machiavelli retells the story of Cesare Borgia for instructional purposes. He begins with Pope Alexander VI, who encountered considerable challenges when he attempted to acquire a state for his illegitimate son. Unable to obtain a state through negotiation, Alexander instead created disorder within Italy, throwing states "into a turmoil" so that he could then "win secure control of part of them." Alexander allowed the Venetians to invite France into Italy and later allied himself directly with France, which aided his initial conquests. With these first possessions, Borgia consolidated control by undermining the power of the Roman barons and fiercely crushing rebellions in Urbino and the Romagna (region of north-central Italy). Borgia came to distrust the foreign French arms that had initially aided him and gradually swore them off in favor of "stratagem." Borgia secured his rule by winning the "trust and friendship" of his subjects and creating his own troops.

Discussing the Romagna at length, Machiavelli describes the situation that Borgia inherited when he conquered it. The Romagna had been ruled poorly and was rife with "factions" and "anarchy." Therefore, when Borgia established his government there, he entrusted "the fullest powers" to his "cruel, efficient" subordinate, Remirro de Orco, in order to subdue the province. With "excessive authority" Remirro "pacified and unified" the Romagna in a short time. However, knowing that the "severities" of Remirro's rule had earned Borgia "a certain amount of hatred," Borgia publicly criticized the "harsh nature of his minister" and eventually had him executed. This action kept the people "at once appeased and stupefied."

Machiavelli returns to Borgia's saga. With his power fairly consolidated, Borgia began to consider further expansion. Knowing that he had "to go carefully" regarding his damaged relationship with France, Borgia sought new alliances, particularly with France's opponent, Spain. Borgia aimed to secure his position so that even if his father's successor as pope proved unfriendly, he might still maintain his gains. However, with Pope Alexander's sudden death, Borgia was unable to win Spanish support and could not secure his position. Prior to his father's death, Borgia had secured his power in three of four ways: he had destroyed the families of deposed rulers; he had won over the Roman barons; and he had gained a "very large following" in the College of Cardinals, which elects new popes. However, Borgia failed to acquire enough power and prestige prior to his father's death in order to be able to "withstand an initial attack."

Thus, with Pope Alexander VI's unexpected death, Cesare Borgia found himself "with his state in the Romagna consolidated but with everything else in the air," having not yet secured additional territories or the friendship of Spain. "Mortally ill" himself, Borgia was caught "between two extremely powerful and hostile armies," the French and the Spanish. Machiavelli argues that Borgia was a ruler of "such ferocity and prowess" that if he had been in good health when his father died, or if he had not had two armies "bearing down on him," he would have "overcome every difficulty." With these unfortunate circumstances in mind, Machiavelli writes that he cannot "censure" Borgia. Machiavelli holds up Borgia as an exemplary contemporary example for new princes, praising his diplomatic skill and his ability to be both "loved and feared by his subjects."

Machiavelli's only criticism of Cesare Borgia stems from his choice of pope, Julius II (also known as San Pietro ad Vincula). Machiavelli argues that Borgia should have used his influence to keep the papacy from going to one of his enemies, a man whom Borgia had harmed in the past. Borgia should have attempted to secure the election of a Spanish cardinal, since Borgia and his father were Spanish themselves. According to Machiavelli, Julius II's election spelled the "ultimate ruin" for Borgia.